Forensic DNA analysis:

The DNA, that is present in most living organisms. we have some unique method called DNA profiling in (nucleus of DNA) and forensic DNA analysis or fragment analysis by which we can analyze the genetic material of an organism.

These substances include the human body like blood or semen that may be seen by the oculus if in sufficient quantity, as an invisible amount of the identical fluid or of other substance like skin cells in sweat or fingermarks.

what are DNA sequence analysis and DNA profiling in forensic science?

The chemical stability of DNA is beneficial for forensic genetics because it means the DNA of a biological sample is also analyzed (by a genetic analyzer) long after it absolutely was deposited at a criminal offence scene.

This has been very useful, as an example in cold causes long after storage and with the arrival of the latest analytical methods. 

If the DNA is preserved under the correct condition and using the acceptable methods, and also DNA has even been studied from ancient samples like Egyptian pharaohs and woolly mammoths. 

DNA is not stable forever and again looking at circumstances after deposition at a criminal offence scene and following collection and handling by forensic experts /scientists, it can degrade and affect the flexibility to induce useable results.

Wherever possible, the character of a biological deposit is identified or a minimum of suggested of a DNA profile once it's been produced. 

When a liquid body substance suspected to be blood, semen, or saliva is present in sufficient amount so on be visible to the eye, the situation of the substance to be tested is evident and sampling can proceed by forensic experts in the forensic labs. 

After the biological stain is found, it's usually subjected to a chemical test to do to work out what variety of stain it's going to be. 

These tests usually only suggest instead of indicating, the presence of biological types, requiring a minimum of one other test to be done to verify the result. 

For example, microscopic examination of a suspected semen sample by acid phosphatase analysis shows that fluid finds sperm cells thus confirmed as a sample to be or to contain semen. 

Often these confirmation tests do not seem to be done, to save lots of time and expense, and therefore the evidential weight of a sample is left as probably an X stain applying the proper presumptive test, with a DNA profile matching with Y with the help of DNA profiling method.

When there's very little or nothing visible of a biological stain, a hunt for the possible location of the substance must be made.

The regained biological material is later chemically altered so on discharge whatever DNA with the minimum defeat of sampling because of the commonly limited sample collected, and may be done manually or by the use of any technology. 

The extracted and purified DNA is then neither in sufficient quantity nor in an exceedingly form so on be studied directly, hence the succeeding stages of quantitation and amplification. 

The quantification step determines the quantity of DNA present within the sample so an appropriate and sufficient amount will be utilized in the amplification step- sufficient to be analyzed and not most to overload the system. 

The amplification step involves a way called the PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) technique and make multiple copies of the relevant areas of DNA being profiled while “marking” them chemically with chemical or biological markers or labels to enable detection by machine.

The amplified and labelled DNA fragment or pieces are now during a liquid mixture that must be separated to enable detection and measurement. It's therefore forced by an electrical voltage through a tube containing a molecular sieve or gel, a process called the gel electrophoresis method. 

This process separates the pieces of DNA per size or in length such that smaller pieces pass more quickly through the gel than large ones. Because these pieces pass a particular point within the tube, they're illuminated by the light of a defined wavelength. 

This so-called incident or excitatory light causes the chemical labels added to the sample DNA during amplification to release the light of a distinct wavelength, fluorescence. 

Different areas of DNA profiled have one in all small number of chemical labels so that counting on which fluorescent light is released at which era during gel electrophoresis, it's possible to understand what area of DNA is being detected. 

The number of fluorescence detected is employed as it appears that the quantifier DNA passing through and thus representative of the number of DNA within the original forensic sample. 

This information is captured as electronic data and is analyzed using software to provide a profile. (3500 xl genetic analyzer)

Setting aside a number of the difficulties in assessing whether a DNA component is really present or not, A DNA profile may be matched to a different DNA profile with 100% accuracy (interpretation) and with a precision enthusiastic about the number of loci employed in the match. 

Another parameter that will be useful to grasp when assessing an identification system is that sensitivity. During this context, this implies how little of the fabric from the person has to be available to enable identification. 

The automation permits the profiling of the DNA from a single cell, but in the forensic genetics division, the existence of mixture and debased sample can restore that capability a vice comparatively excellence.

Many matches today are enabled by the creation of a DNA database that stores the DNA profiles of individuals selected by process reckoning on the jurisdictional rules. 

However, there are a variety of scientific and social issues that arise from the utilization of that database. 

Other emerging technologies have also caused debate.

Conclusion of forensic DNA analysis:

Having established the degree to which a match exists between the crime material and also the suspect, the forensic experts must now evaluate the importance of the match.

The place to begin for all such calculations includes the frequency of the actual components within the population. Those frequencies for the DNA components employed in forensic DNA profiling are measured.

The use to which those frequencies are put varies with the kinds of the profile obtained and also the choice of method for calculating the importance of the evidence. 

This can be the increasingly arcane topic or statistics, which has become so complex that some have introduced probabilities genotyping software because the calculation is claimed to be too complex to be undertaken manually.

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Forensic psychology in India

Historically mutually looks at the expansion and development of forensic psychology in India.

It's interesting to go looking out that as far back as 1917 there is a thesis by prof. Prafulla Chandra Bose on how criminal psychology possesses to use in understanding the criminals and on their criminal behaviour. 

He advises the thought that without understanding the criminal psychology of crime that has been committed it's impracticable to dropout proper judgment in any case.

To be true and just, the choice must have considerable inputs from psychology.

For a continued period of it slow, psychiatry experts witness was utilized all told crime regarding the mental state. 

For instance within the "Mental State Act" of 1912, regarding the crime committed by unsound persons, who were labelled as insane, were sent to a Mental asylum for treatment instead of the prisons for serving a sentence.

It requires two government criminal psychologists or psychiatrists to grant an assessment of the mental condition of the accused, that he or she is laid low with the psychological state this was accepted within the court of law as experts evidence. 

Until 20 years ago, when this act was there, no criminal psychologists address this sort of cases.

In the 1970s Polygraph Test was introduced within the forensic science laboratories to test whether the accused is telling the fact or misleading the case investigation.

It is reported that over 1000 cases were handled by CBI forensic science lab by 1974, and lots of more laboratories started using the identical regarding a criminal investigation.

Since 1972, there has been establishing polygraph test machines in forensic science lab in the various state of India. 

For instance, after the CBI FSL, a polygraph division was formed in Karnal Madhuban FSL and then in some other FSLs like Gujarat FSL, Orissa FSL, Bangalore FSL, Jammu and Kashmir FSL, Chandigarh FSL, Delhi FSL, Trivandrum FSL, Hyderabad FSL and fewer than two years ago Mumbai FSL, had started using polygraph test in their Forensic Psychology lab established in many state FSL. 

While the Forensic department of psychology and forensic science in and of itself by name wasn't established in many state FSL, for an extended time the FSL, had a lie detection Division during which the polygraph was used. 

Now there is a Forensic section in Mumbai FSL, Gujarat FSL, Bangalore FSL, etc.

Over the years, far more innovation has been taking place within the sphere of forensic psychology in India and also it is innovating in every division of forensic science laboratories. 

For instance, narcoanalysis was started in Bangalore FSL and continues to be utilized by many other FSL, in several parts of India. The BEOSP (Brain Electrical Oscillation Signature Profiling) technique is being employed in Gujarat and Mumbai FSLs.

In recent time Lie Detection and Narcoanalysis are used in cases like that of Stamp Scam, Nithari Killing and recently within the dual murder case of Arushi Talvar.

In India, the police and the courts became more sensitized to those methods and have started using the identical in their efforts to awaken the book of the real criminal.

However, lots more work must be done and much more acceptance is crucial before forensic psychology becomes one of the important invaluable tools of crime investigation.

Present Status of lie detection in India:

The Indian law doesn't compel someone to undergo the lie detection test. Article 20 (3) of the constitution of India says, “No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself”.

Section 161 Cr.P.C. 1973 also prohibits self-incriminating statement from an accused.

Thus, the legal position which emerges is that an accused cannot be put to a polygraph test if he doesn't volunteer or if his questions have a bent to indicate him to incrimination.

Even within the case of somebody who himself volunteers to face a polygraph, it's to be seen who record his statement or conducts the polygraph test. 

If it's done by a policeman and whether or not it is a voluntary confession, it cannot be proved during trial under Sec.25 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 which provides, “No confession made to a policeman shall be proved as against someone accused of any offence” (Sec.27 of the Evidence Act is an exception to Sec.25 of the identical Act). 

In case, the test is performed by a person other than an advocate and if it is a confession, it's visiting be admissible as Extra Judicial Confession subject to provision of Sec.24 of the Indian Evidence Act.

As regards admissibility of the statement recorded on the polygraph in case the person conducting the test is that the shielder and so the person put to test is an accused, it is not admissible u/s 25 of the Indian Evidence Act expect u/s 27 of the identical Act for a limited purpose and his examination are further subjects to Art.20 (3) of the constitution of India and section.161(2) Cr. P.C 1973. 

If the person facing the polygraph may be a witness, the statement is often put to use only within the subsequent section.162 Cr.P.C

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Function and role of the forensic psychologists

Criminal identification of the offender, this will be done by forensic psychologists using the data of the crime, interviews, interrogation and psychological instrument and conjointly witnesses statements, to infer characteristics regarding the potential offender.

The defence uses this information and so the forensic psychological report back to formulate their legal arguments ahead of the choice.

forensic psychologists addressing civil and criminal cases:

forensic psychologists handle both civil and criminal cases, like compensation once one person/ the party has interfered with another’s rights. In such a case, compensation is that the remedy, that considerable skilled psychological proof is needed.  

In sure cases, characteristic symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder from the assumption of compensation.

Another area within which forensic psychologists contribute is in civil cases like the cases of harassment.

The forensic psychologists assess the mental and emotional harm caused to the victim as a result of the harassment.

As an example, anxiety, depression, standoffishness, unsafe tendencies, drug or alcoholism abuse, and different acting-out behaviours are unit assessed by criminal psychologists.

A forensic psychologist needs to determine whether or not any of those condition exists and to what the extent they will be associated with the molestation allegations on the case.

Forensic scientist contributes to the assessment of the client on whether he has the ability to stand trial.

That's if the consumer matches enough mentally to plead his case, whether or not possesses psychological feature talents to defend himself, etc.

The forensic psychologists when creating such assessment offer evidence within the court relating to the ability of the incumbent to face trial and defend himself similarly because of the medical, medicine or psychological standing of the consumer.

Family law is a neighbourhood, which is comparatively a completely new area whereby the forensic expert provides evidence within the court.

This deals with trendy family problems and conjointly the protection of children.

The forensic scientist investigates facts referring to physical and crime of children, violence, care, and children's custody.

When due assessment and investigation, a forensic scientist provides evidence within the court relating to these aspects and helps the courts to create your mind up within the best interest of the family.

Victimisation techniques like an anatomical doll, interviews, play sessions, drawing and painting, the scientist will perceive the trauma caused to the children by the physical and statutory offence and presents these as evidence within the court.

In sure cases where the child needs protection and care, there will also an advocate to guide that, they assess youngsters. The law enforcement agency wants a substitute family and gift their recommendations to the justice system to secure, and supply a secure and healthy atmosphere for the children to prosper and grow.

In India, the almost violence that's reported, or come back underneath the angle of the system, take the shape of spousal abuse and should now and then overlap great abuse too.

The forensic scientist through several techniques and assessment tools will ascertain the extent of hurt or harm caused mentally and physically to the victim and uses these findings as evidence within the court so justice may well be ensured to the victim.

forensic psychologists or criminal psychologists also are called upon to help in child custody cases.

This typically includes Custody disputes which can arise once divorcing parent aren't ready to agree on residential and parenting arrangements for his or her children or once one parent uses the problem as a block against an unfavourable divorce outcome.

Custody disputes typically embrace determination regarding visitation.

Sometimes, the forensic scientist evaluates a visitation dispute, instead of an argument over custody.

In sure cases, they will be concerned in mediating in couples area unit actuated to be child-centred in their custody negotiation and each folk will trust and work with the treater.

Mediation has been declared by some as a terribly important alternative to the adversarial system of custody disputes.

The forensic expert faces the twin responsibility of playing a competent and truthful clinical analysis on the family as a full, and act to the court on which of the custody arrangement would be within the best interest of the kid.

Different areas during which the experience of the forensic expert helps is within the case of workman’s compensation, in which, forensic psychologists called upon to point if the employee who is saying compensation was, after all, suffering from the work stress and if therefore however this stress may have affected the employee opposed.

As within the more general civil law context, the forensic psychologists can be asked to see also the treatment wants of the consumer and treatment plans.

Except for indicating if the consumer is capable of standing trial, the forensic scientist analyzes and gift to the court whether or not the defendant behaved in wrongful ways that (criminal behaviour) due to any disorder (insanity).

They conjointly facilitate the courts with their analysis of an accused on whether a criminal is dangerous is most likely going to commit the violent crime all yet again.

In cases wherever probation or liberate has got to be set, the forensic psychologists assessment and analysis area unit of nice price to the judges.

Before pronouncing execution to a defendant,  the forensic psychologist's report is asked for during which the latter presents his analysis of the accused’s motivations, intentions and temperament traits that all facilitate the court to return to a lot of correct calls.

Professionally trained in rehabilitation, the forensic expert conjointly helps the courts to create a decision whether an accused has to be restored and if therefore, however. like service is provided by them particularly relating to juvenile offenders to the tribunal judges.

Several forensic scientists work with attorneys in choosing jurors, analyzing the potential verdicts of juries, and explaining actual trial verdicts.

These professionals might conduct a survey on the angle of the community pr hold mock trials and simply help the lawyer interpret individuals’ answer and non-verbal behaviours to work out the characteristics of the foremost favourable form of a panellist.

Our work illustrates somewhat a lot of primitive bias.

The bottom line, write the authors, “is that any form of overall judgment ought to be delayed as long as potential.”

Virtually any legal matter that wants psychological analysis might embrace the work of the criminal or forensic expert.

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psychology and forensic science

Introduction:

psychology and forensic science both are the interface between sciences and the laws of a nation.

forensic psychology is an appliance of psychological principles and knowledge to numerous legal activities ranging from crime against children, like abuse, child custody disputes, to assessing the mental and integrity of a person’s own capacity to manage his/her affairs, his/her ability and competency to stand the trial and to advise judges in a court of law, in matters regarding sentencing etc. 

Definitions of psychology and forensic science:

The word Forensic comes from the word 'Forensis' which means of or before Forum, the forum is a place where trials were conducted in Roman times.

Within the current day context, Forensic refers to the connection between the legal system on the one hand and thus on another hand, it is a professional field, like psychiatry, medicine, pathology, chemistry, anthropology, psychology, etc.

In 1991 there is a committee on Ethical Guidelines for forensic psychologist which defined forensic psychology as a field that covers “all kinds of professional conduct when acting, with definable fore-knowledge, as a psychological expert on explicitly psychological issues indirect assistance to the courts, parties to legal proceedings, correctional and forensic condition facilities, and administrative, judicial, and legislative agencies acting during a judicial capacity”.

 The narrow definition of forensic psychology is that the professional practice by psychologists within the field of psychiatry, counselling psychology, neuropsychology, and common psychology after they're engaged regularly as experts and represent themselves in and of itself is an expert, who is primarily designated to produce professional psychological expertise to the judicial system. 

According to the broad definition, forensic psychology is the development and application of psychological principles to the problems and administration of legal, judicial, correctional, and enforcement systems, clearly rooted within the discipline of psychology and its sub-fields, but these fields are also interdisciplinary in nature that drawing on diverse disciplines just like the law, sociology, government, anthropology, philosophy, medicine, and linguistics. 

forensic psychology involves a relationship with central, state and native forensic laboratories and the enforcement agencies or also with the criminal lawyers and thus the court; corrections and treatment facilities. 

Some of the precise areas, a forensic psychologist works include:

1. Divorce and child custody mediation. 

2. Determination of criminal responsibility (Insanity) and competency to face trial. 

3. Jury selection and case strategy. 

4. Expert opinion/testimony on the question of a psychological nature. 

5. Assessing receptiveness and response to treatment. 

6. Psychological testing and evaluation. 

7. Assessment of dangerousness. (e.g. Sexual predator laws) 

8. Selection and placement of cops, security and military personnel. 

9. Explaining the effect of psychological condition and illness. 

10. Conducting critical incident debriefing, advising on Critical Incident Stress Management, and fitness for duty evaluations. 

11. Consulting with managers to develop workplace safety and violence de-briefing procedures and giving psychological advice for the changes.

12. Designing and conducting treatment programs for offenders and for the people who are under custody. 

13. Conducting research on treatment effectiveness. 

14. Preparing profiles of various styles of offenders e.g. sexual offenders, arsonists, etc. 

15. Teach course or provide professional knowledge for development in workshops on Forensic topics. 

Forensic Psychology while established within the discipline of psychology is finally interdisciplinary in nature. 

That brings on diverse disciplines like law, sociology, politics, anthropology, philosophy, medicine, and linguistics. 

Forensic Psychology includes all services of psychology nature as applied to the enforcement system and legal requirements according to law.

However, there are certain services like treating an offender on the instruction of the court that can be in asylum or according to the instructions provided and getting him back to normal so he could depose before the court, which is entirely a part of clinical forensic. 

On the alternative hand when the forensic psychologist also provides a report back to the court and provides information about the character and extent of severity of the trauma (as within the case of head injury caused by an accident, etc.) of the culprits or victims. These services are termed forensic service.

Importance of psychology and forensic science:

Because of its uniqueness, forensic psychology practice perhaps receives more inspection than the opposite area of psychology. 

The opinions given by the forensic psychologists within the court, their reports and testimony are hospitable for both criticism and formal cross-examination. 

The report supported forensic assessments which have the influence to choose the sentence that is to be pronounced regarding an accused. 

Forensic psychologists are expected to possess an intensive understanding of medical or psychological acts and case law, additionally to their specialized knowledge in psychiatry and their other disciplines. 

The combination of the subject gives them the unique expertise to use all the relevant instrument needed in forensic psychology within the investigation of the cases. 

Forensic psychologists need also to grab the thanks to present within the court of law, the evidence they have gathered regarding the case at hand. 

They should even be trained in psychometric tests, capable of administering the relevant tests, scoring the tests, and interpreting them appropriately. 

Over the years because of many developments and innovation within the sphere in terms of institutions, researches and instrumentation etc. forensic psychologists have come to play many roles in relevant criminal cases for a better trial in court. 

For instance, a forensic psychologist also provides counselling and psychological therapy services to individuals attached to the judicature, take-up counselling for juveniles and adults on probation, handle individuals who violate confining orders, address victims of crimes and person awaiting for trial, examine the cases of sexual offenders and use anger management skills training for violent offenders and take-up tests for making them normal for society. 

As the significant role of forensic psychologists in civil cases, they're also expected to examine and analyze someone who has suffered an emotional injury from an accident or from witnessing a traumatic event. 

In some cases, criminal psychologists could even be required to point out specific treatment needs and also the acceptable treatment for the person’s condition and approve and disapprove the treatment required.

The psychologists in some civil cases also provide psychotherapy and counselling to the one who suffers from post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, adjustment problem, marital discord, and other psychological condition etc. 

criminal psychologists are historically used both in criminal and civil cases for their psychological expertise to the judiciary during a court of law.

When an argument dropped at the court by an individual has both psychological and legal components, these should necessarily involve psychologists and legal experts for transparency in the judiciary.

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The scientific method of investigation

Introduction :

Here we will discuss scientific research, scientific method of investigation and scientific instruments in forensic investigation.

The scientific discovery has put the person on the Moon and Mars that is additionally trying to assist mankind in arising the increasing tendency of rate science research.

forensic science is also an achievement of current science. In forensic science, the first objective during a criminal investigation, which is the identification of a criminal with certainty, so it can help the court in administering justice, current science has developed various techniques within name of lie detector/polygraph technique, brain mapping test, narco-analysis and lots of more.

scientific investigation:

In the scientific investigation, "many things within the world are investigated, must be investigated and can be investigated".

This belongs that a scientific method of scientific approach that consists of principles and experimental methods, scientific reports, phenomena, explanations, experiment, demonstration and in some cases, google scientific research journal of applied sciences etc. This is how a scientific investigation is done.

scientific investigations a scientific way during which the scientists or researchers approach to answer the question and communicate the result to be people around the world. It involves Questioning, Hypothesis, Experimentation, Analyzation and Conclusion.

Various steps involved in scientific investigation:

The scientific investigation is determined by the five steps. Without that steps, no forensic expert can reproduce the experiment. These standard steps make sure that the test is being non-impartial and also the result's supported proper research.

 1) Questioning Process- This is the initiative of any scientific investigation. While understanding an idea you get into a large number of doubts and problems. In the questioning process, the matter is exhibited within the characteristic of an issue.

 2) Gathering Information- The next step is gathering out the important information, this can be done by doing background science research were journal of applied sciences, knowledge and a few similar experiments which are spoken come to an inference. Hence, this method also called the way to perform background science research in a scientific investigation.

 3) Hypothesis- The hypothesis is that the quiet prediction of outcome supported by studying the data about science. It is a kind of educational, science paper, knowledge and skilled guess that tells what results are expected by the experiment or scientific research.

 4) Test the hypothesis- The hypothesis is tested by designing a correct experimental tool. That tool must follow the proper guidelines, scientific scale, or the experiment is performed and also the result should be tested.

Conclusion-The scientific data collected within the experiment or a science research will decide whether the experiment work proves and disproves the result. Hence we get the conclusion which either proves and disproves the hypothesis and science signalling.

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Forensic chemistry

Forensic chemistry is a division of forensic science in which physical or chemical evidence is examined and tested, forensic chemistry draws general chemistry principles and ideas.

Investigating the physical and chemical properties of a substance is a major objective of analytical chemistry and forensic chemistry.

The functioning of forensic chemistry would not possible without recognition for these properties and therefore the methodology of general chemistry.

Physical and chemical properties recall that physical properties are properties of a substance that will be described or displayed without requiring an action.

For example, as we know sulfur is yellow in colour, Iron is malleable (that is it can be converted into sheets by some external forces), cocaine is white colour solid crystals, and therefore the density of a glass fragment broken from a glass window at a place where crime occurs (scene of the crime) is approximately 2.5g/ml.

Consequently, the identification of an uncommon drug will be challenging.

Two types of analysis are used in forensic chemistry for identifying the unknown substance:

Presumptive and Confirmatory Analysis:

Presumptive analyses observe chemical and physical properties that are confirmatory. Presumptive analyses examine the chemical and physical properties which are not unique enough for the examiner for identification but those analyses provide enough information to precise the search in the investigation.

Presumption analyses are usually fast and cheap to perform.

When the presumptive analyses are tested negative then they exclude potential drug candidates, once they are tested positive, after that they are forwarded to the forensic expert for their further applicable confirmatory analyses.

It should be noted that presumptive analyses only shorten a substance's possible identities, but the confirmatory analyses identify a questioned sample completely.

The court required these analysis reports and they must be performed to convict someone for custody of the illegal substance.

These analyses use the unique chemical or physical properties of a substance for the aim of identification.

Basically, confirmatory analyses are long or time-consuming and are more expensive than presumptive analyses

An advanced instrument that is used by the forensic chemist these days is the Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrophotometer (FTIR) with the help of this instrument, the forensic scientist can begin to easily find in the questioned sample by measuring its unique interaction with the infrared radiation that is emitted by the instrument.

This pattern of interaction, which could be a function of wavelength and radiations, is commonly called a chemical fingerprint. It is very unique for a pure substance and allows the substance for its identification.

After advancement in science, we have an instrument that is used when we have a compound that may be a mixture, that will be separated and by this, every compound can subsequently be identified by an instrument called a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GC-MS).

The anthropometry identification system was replaced by fingerprinting after 20 years, a more accurate identification system.

Comparative analyses: 

Classification and Individualization.

The purpose of a comparative analysis is to link a questioned sample and a known sample for a common origin.

The origin may also broad which leads to classification or the exclusive that leads to individualization. for example, within the case of a hair sample analysis, its identification is commonly obvious or even easily established within the laboratory.

In fact, the value of the hair sample in forensic evidence is not found in its identification in peace of hair. The more important is, to investigate the source or origin of the sample during a particular species or individual.

This could also be determined through comparative analysis with different samples of a known origin.

The class characteristics are properties of a substance that are divided by a bunch of drugs but they don't look to be unique to any other substances of one origin.

A class characteristic that varies within a substance is named natural variation.

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